Method of Writing
Research Papers 1
Trương Văn Ánh
HUFLIT

 
Components
 
 
Topic
 
Abstract

 
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Notes
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
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Introduction

 
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Literature Review

 
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Methods

 
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Results/ Findings

 
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Díscussion

 
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Conclusion

 
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References

 
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Final Product
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Unit 1: Introduction to Empirical Research
The empirical approach to knowledge is based on
observation, direct or indirect, or in other words, on
experience. In a casual sense, everyone uses the
empirical approach in his or her daily life. For
instance, a person may notice that the mail comes at
the same time every day, and begin to expect the mail
to arrive at that time, based on experience. Or a
commute may typically take 30 minutes, so a worker
decides to leave for work based on previous
experiences of the commute length. As useful as
observation and experience are, they can also be
misleading, especially when they are not collected or
reviewed systematically.

In everyday thinking, we often make mental
shortcuts that are helpful but not always
accurate. It can cause us to overestimate the
value of some information and underestimate
the value of other evidence. For instance,
confirmation bias is a tendency to recall or
favor the information or interpretation that fits
with one's existing beliefs. We tend to rely on
the most recent information which may not
represent all the information very accurately.

It is also possible to misinterpret observations. A
teacher might observe that students become restless
during a particular lesson and interpret their
response as boredom. The teacher may have
misinterpreted the reason for the students'
restlessness. Even if the lesson in question is boring
to these particular students, the teacher might
conclude that the lesson is boring to students in
general. In fact, students who differ from the current
students in ability level, background, or subject
matter interests may find the lesson very engaging.

Researchers use the empirical approach as a way to
avoid misleading results and poor interpretations.
The key is carefully planning why they want to make
observations, how to observe, when to observe, and
whom they want to observe. Researchers create a
plan or design, collect data in a systematic way,
document their data collection, analyze data, and
report the results. Empirical approaches to research
encompass all research design approaches, including
experimental designs and nonexperimental
designs. They include qualitative and quantitative
approaches to research design and analysis.

Planning how to observe is also connected
to matching approach and research
question. As a part of the research design,
researchers have to answer many “how”
questions. This is because research
involves translation between ideas and
measures.

Figuring out how to measure something may be
more or less challenging based on how abstract
the concept that must be measured. Measures
vary from established, standardized instruments
such as psychological inventories, to interview
questions that the researcher writes and adjusts
to fit the goals of the specific study. Other
examples of measures include surveys, scales,
observation, and objective tests.

Researchers must also decide when they will use the
measures to obtain the most relevant results. When
researchers plan whom to observe, they first decide
whether
to
observe
an
entire
population or just a sample of the population. If a
sample is chosen, which is often the case, researchers
decide how to select a sample that is not biased
against any types of individuals or subgroups. A
sample might bias the results to look like better
performance when compared against the population
If a sample is biased and does not include all types,
the findings are less likely to align with reality.

Once observations are made, the researcher has
data. Data may be in the form of numbers. This is
called quantitative research.
Other scientific observations are not reduced to
numbers but are expressed in words. For instance,
interview data may be described in a narrative that
points out themes and trends. Such research is
referred to as qualitative research. The differences
between qualitative and quantitative research are
described throughout the book.

TOPIC REVIEW
1. On what is the empirical approach to knowledge
based?
2. Is the empirical approach used in everyday living?
3. What does the question “how” establish?
4. According to the topic, do researchers usually
observe a sample or a population?
5. Which type of research results are not reduced to
numbers (“quantitative” or “qualitative”)?
6. Are the results of all scientific studies expressed as
numbers?

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS
1. Briefly describe a time when you were misled by
an everyday observation (i.e., when you reached a
conclusion on the basis of an everyday observation
that you later decided was an incorrect
conclusion).
2. You have probably encountered conflicting
research reported in the mass media. For example,
one study might indicate that drinking red wine
improves health while another study indicates that
it does not. Speculate on the reasons why various
researchers might obtain different results when
studying the same problem.

RESEARCH PLANNING
As you consider the general problem area in which you
might conduct research, think about the “why,” “how,”
“when,” and “whom” questions posted in this topic. Take
some preliminary notes on your answers to these questions.
Begin to think about the broad areas introduced in this
topic, which will be covered in more detail as you work
through the parts of this book. In your notes, consider
creating headings for sections or pages to begin planning
the following: “Research Question,” “Design,” “Measures,”
“Sample,” “Timeline,” and “Analysis.” This will help you
build a research plan. (Literature might also be a separate
heading section; we will work on organizing literature
separately.)

NOTES
1. Empirical approaches to knowledge are often
contrasted with theoretical approaches, but they are
not opposites and often work hand in hand. In a
theoretical approach, researchers are often
developing or testing a theory or idea about how the
world operates. Examples of other approaches are
(1) deduction, such as when one deduces a proof in
mathematics on the basis of certain assumptions
and definitions, and (2) reliance on authority, such as
relying on a leader's pronouncements as a source of
knowledge.
2. Measures are sometimes called instruments.

Good luck!