Method of Writing
Research Papers 8
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THE ROLE OF THEORY IN RESEARCH
Research and theory are interrelated. They form a cycle that
is part of the collective dialogue of the scientific enterprise.
A theory is a unified explanation of observations, some
of which may otherwise appear contradictory. Typically, a
theory will try to explain a relationship between two or
more actions or things using rigorous criteria so that it aligns
with logic and empirical evidence. Good theories are also
designed to be generalizable to groups or situations beyond
those immediately studied and to be testable, so that when
they are applied to other situations there are clear ways to
determine if they hold true, revealing their applications and
limits. While theories often begin as ideas, they come to
make up our working scientific knowledge when they are
supported through the findings of repeated experiments or
nonexperimental research.

Consider one of the most widely studied theories about
learning: reinforcement theory. In this theory, positive
reinforcement is defined as anything that increases the
frequency of a response from an animal or individual. A
common example of this is praising a dog as a reward for
sitting on command. In reinforcement theory, the praise
is the positive reinforcement, and it has increased the
frequency of the sitting behavior in the dog, a part of learning.
At first, reinforcement theory sounds obvious. If you reward a
behavior, you increase the behavior that results in the reward.
In a way, it is self-defining. Why would something that seems
so obvious be so carefully studied? Because it explains many
apparently contradictory observations. For instance, suppose
an individual praises a dog regularly for sitting at first, but
after a while, the person becomes lax and only offers praise
for sitting every once in a while.

What would you expect the result to be? Common sense
might suggest that the dog's sitting behavior will decrease
with the decrease in praise. However, we might actually
observe an increase in the dog's sitting behavior because
reinforcement
theory
indicates
that
intermittent
reinforcement is, under many circumstances, more effective
than consistent reinforcement. Theories about behavior often
start with common sense guesses, but research helps sort
accurate guesses from inaccurate ones using empirical
evidence and appropriate analysis of the data. Reinforcement
theory offers an explanation for why certain behaviors
increase in their frequency. Without this theory, it might be
more confusing to understand behaviors that would appear
inconsistent.

Sometimes, research is used to test hypotheses derived
from existing theories. This is a deductive approach. It can
also be considered a “top-down” approach because the
theory precedes the data collection. Another way to think
about the deductive approach is moving from a general
principle to examining if it holds in a specific instance.
Hypotheses are formulated to be consistent with the
existing theory. For instance, self-regulated learning theory
proposes that a student's level of cognitive engagement is
determined by the goals they set.

From this, a researcher might deduce that when students
know they will be tested again on the same material, those
who have lower goals (e.g., a goal of getting 70% right)
should ask for less feedback about wrongly answered test
items than those who have higher goals. If this hypothesis is
confirmed by the study, it lends support to the underlying
theory. Assuming the study is methodologically strong,
failure to confirm a hypothesis calls the theory (or parts of
it) into question, causing theorists to consider reformulating
it to account for the discrepancy. This is an approach that
aligns with quantitative research approaches.

In an inductive approach, research provides a “ground-up”
approach, using observations and conclusions to formulate a
theory. It can also be thought of as moving from the
specific to the general by adding up observations of specific
events or people to notice patterns, and using those patterns
to develop theories that explain the events or behaviors
observed. Qualitative researchers often take an inductive
approach to theory construction. Consider the above
example of the dog receiving intermittent positive
reinforcement. It is the observations that reveal a pattern in
which intermittent reinforcement produces more
effective results. Even though qualitative and quantitative
research tend to start from different points, the process of
science means that research often employs both
approaches.

Inductive observations of patterns may result in a theory that
is then tested using hypothesis testing in a deductive
manner. Deductive research may result in unexpected
findings that the researcher then explores using inductive
approaches. In truth, most types of research utilize both
types of logic and benefit from going back and forth between
data and theory. Grounded theory is a methodological
approach
that
closely
links
theory
development and research through an iterative approach in
which researchers alternate between theory development
and research collection in an iterative fashion, so that each
step influences the overall process. Both theory and data
collection are regularly revised as new observations warrant.

Students who are looking for a research topic for a thesis or
term project would be well advised to consider a theory of
interest. Testing some aspect of the theory can potentially
make a contribution to the understanding of all aspects of
behavior related to the theory. In addition, students will
find it easier to defend their selection of a research topic
and write the introduction to the research report if it can be
shown that the study has implications for validating and
refining an important theory. When thinking about theory
as a basis for research, keep in mind that no theory of
human behavior is universal. There are almost always
exceptions to every rule.

This is why researchers usually examine trends across
groups in order to test or develop theories. However, do not
overlook the possibility of designing a study specifically
to examine those individuals who do not perform as
predicted by a theory. Understanding how the dynamics of
their behavior differ from those of individuals who act in the
way predicted by a theory may help in refining a theory to
take account of exceptions.

TOPIC REVIEW
1. How is a theory defined in this topic?
2. Do researchers use “induction” or “deduction” to derive a
hypothesis from a theory?
3. What are the two major functions of research mentioned
in this topic?
4. If a hypothesis derived from a theory is not confirmed,
what implications does this have for the theory?
5. Is grounded theory based on “induction” or on
“deduction”? 6. Is the use of grounded theory more likely to
be associated with “qualitative” or with “quantitative”
research?

DISCUSSION QUESTION
1. Examine the discussion of a theory in a textbook
in your field. Does the author of the textbook cite
research that supports it? Does he or she suggest
unresolved issues relating to the theory that might
be explored in future research? Explain.

RESEARCH PLANNING
Is the purpose of your research to test a hypothesis
deduced from a theory? (This is typically done by
quantitative researchers; see Topics 7 and 8 for a brief
explanation of the differences between qualitative and
quantitative research.) Explain. Is the purpose of your
research to make observations on which a theory may be
built? (This is typically done by qualitative researchers; see
Topics 7 and 8 for a brief explanation of the differences
between qualitative and quantitative research.) Explain.

NOTES
1. Technical terms for various schedules of reinforcement
are not discussed here.
2. For more information on this theory and to see an
example of research based on the theory, see van der
Werf, G., Kuyper, H., & Minnaert, A. (2013). Emotions, selfregulated learning, and achievement in mathematics: A
growth curve analysis. Journal of Educational Psychology,
105, 150–161.
3. For more information on the use of the grounded theory
approach to research, see Part 6 of this book. Also see Zarif,
T. (2012). Grounded theory research: An overview.
Interdisciplinary Journal of Contemporary Research in
Business, 4(5), 969–979.

Good luck!